FIGS. 33A and 33B show a typical arrangement for intravascular infusion. As the terminology is used herein, “intravascular” preferably refers to being situated in, occurring in, or being administered by entry into a blood vessel, thus “intravascular infusion” preferably refers to introducing a fluid or infusate into a subcutaneous blood vessel V. Intravascular infusion accordingly encompasses both intravenous infusion (administering a fluid into a vein) and intra-arterial infusion (administering a fluid into an artery).
A cannula 20 typically is used for administering fluid via the blood vessel V. Typically, cannula 20 is inserted through skin S at a cannulation site N and punctures the blood vessel V, for example, the cephalic vein, basilica vein, median cubital vein, or any suitable vein for an intravenous infusion. Similarly, any suitable artery may be used for an intra-arterial infusion.
Cannula 20 typically is in fluid communication with a fluid source 22. Typically, cannula 20 includes an extracorporeal connector 20a, a hub 20b, and a transcutaneous sleeve 20c. An extension tube may couple the extracorporeal connector 20a and the hub 20b, as shown in FIG. 33A, or the hub 20b may incorporate the extracorporeal connector 20a. Fluid source 22 typically includes one or more sterile containers that hold the fluid(s) to be administered. Examples of typical sterile containers include plastic bags, glass bottles or plastic bottles.
An administration set 30 typically provides a sterile conduit for fluid to flow from fluid source 22 to cannula 20. Typically, administration set 30 includes tubing 32, a drip chamber 34, a flow control device 36, and a cannula connector 38. Tubing 32 typically is made of polypropylene, nylon, or another flexible, strong and inert material. Drip chamber 34 typically permits the fluid to flow one drop at a time for reducing air bubbles in the flow. Tubing 32 and drip chamber 34 typically are transparent or translucent to provide a visual indication of the flow. Typically, flow control device 36 controls fluid flow in tubing 32 and is positioned upstream from drip chamber 34. Roller clamps and Dial-A-Flo®, manufactured by Hospira, Inc. (Lake Forest, Ill., US), are examples of typical flow control devices. Typically, cannula connector 38 and extracorporeal connector 20a provide a leak-proof coupling through which the fluid may flow. Luer-Lok™, manufactured by Becton, Dickinson and Company (Franklin Lakes, N.J., US), is an example of a typical leak-proof coupling.
Administration set 30 may also include at least one of a clamp 40, an injection port 42, a filter 44, or other devices. Typically, clamp 40 pinches tubing 32 to cut-off fluid flow. Injection port 42 typically provides an access port for administering medicine or another fluid via cannula 20. Filter 44 typically purifies and/or treats the fluid flowing through administration set 30. For example, filter 44 may strain contaminants from the fluid.
An infusion pump 50 may be coupled with administration set 30 for controlling the quantity or the rate of fluid flow to cannula 20. The Alaris® System manufactured by CareFusion Corporation (San Diego, Calif., US), BodyGuard® Infusion Pumps manufactured by CMA America, L.L.C. (Golden, Colo., US), and Flo-Gard® Volumetric Infusion Pumps manufactured by Baxter International Inc. (Deerfield, Ill., US) are examples of typical infusion pumps.
Intravenous infusion or therapy typically uses a fluid (e.g., infusate, whole blood, or blood product) to correct an electrolyte imbalance, to deliver a medication, or to elevate a fluid level. Typical infusates predominately consist of sterile water with electrolytes (e.g., sodium, potassium, or chloride), calories (e.g., dextrose or total parenteral nutrition), or medications (e.g., anti-infectives, anticonvulsants, antihyperuricemic agents, cardiovascular agents, central nervous system agents, chemotherapy drugs, coagulation modifiers, gastrointestinal agents, or respiratory agents). Examples of medications that are typically administered during intravenous therapy include acyclovir, allopurinol, amikacin, aminophylline, amiodarone, amphotericin B, ampicillin, carboplatin, cefazolin, cefotaxime, cefuroxime, ciprofloxacin, cisplatin, clindamycin, cyclophosphamide, diazepam, docetaxel, dopamine, doxorubicin, doxycycline, erythromycin, etoposide, fentanyl, fluorouracil, furosemide, ganciclovir, gemcitabine, gentamicin, heparin, imipenem, irinotecan, lorazepam, magnesium sulfate, meropenem, methotrexate, methylprednisolone, midazolam, morphine, nafcillin, ondansetron, paclitaxel, pentamidine, phenobarbital, phenytoin, piperacillin, promethazine, sodium bicarbonate, ticarcillin, tobramycin, topotecan, vancomycin, vinblastine and vincristine. Transfusions and other processes for donating and receiving whole blood or blood products (e.g., albumin and immunoglobulin) also typically use intravenous infusion.
Unintended infusing typically occurs when fluid from cannula 20 escapes from its intended vein/artery. Typically, unintended infusing causes an abnormal amount of the fluid to diffuse or accumulate in perivascular tissue P and may occur, for example, when (i) cannula 20 causes a vein/artery to rupture; (ii) cannula 20 improperly punctures the vein/artery; (iii) cannula 20 backs out of the vein/artery; (iv) cannula 20 is improperly sized; (v) infusion pump 50 administers fluid at an excessive flow rate; or (vi) the infusate increases permeability of the vein/artery. As the terminology is used herein, “tissue” preferably refers to an association of cells, intercellular material and/or interstitial compartments, and “perivascular tissue” preferably refers to cells, intercellular material, interstitial fluid and/or interstitial compartments that are in the general vicinity of a blood vessel and may become unintentionally infused with fluid from cannula 20. Unintended infusing of a non-vesicant fluid is typically referred to as “infiltration,” whereas unintended infusing of a vesicant fluid is typically referred to as “extravasation.”
The symptoms of infiltration or extravasation typically include edema, pain or numbness in the vicinity of the cannulation site N; blanching, discoloration, inflammation or coolness of the skin S in the vicinity of the cannulation site N; breakdown, tautness or stretching of the skin S; or drainage from the cannulation site N. The consequences of infiltration or extravasation typically include skin reactions (e.g., blisters), nerve compression, compartment syndrome, or necrosis. Typical treatments for infiltration or extravasation include (i) applying warm or cold compresses; (ii) elevating the affected limb; (iii) administering hyaluronidase, phentolamine, sodium thiosulfate or dexrazoxane; (iv) fasciotomy; or (v) amputation.